Some have argued that the penal substitution theory of the atonement was expressed by the early church fathers, such as Justin Martyr c.100-165, Eusebius of Caesarea c.275-339, and Augustine of Hippo 354-430.

In 2003 Steve Chalke, after being influenced by new-perspective writers, published a book targeted at a popular audience which made comments highly critical of the penal substitution theory of the atonement.

In scholarly literature it has been generally recognised for some time that the penal substitution theory was not taught in the Early Church.

Gustaf Aulén, in his classic Christus Victor, argues that the ransom theory was the dominant understanding of the atonement for over a thousand years and that the penal substitution theory came only after Anselm.

English and German language site about the substitution theory of Madame Royale and the "Dark Countess of Hildburghausen"

The recently proposed capital structure substitution theory argues that the Fed model indeed needs to be re-specified.

He introduced Tinkler to extended practice on the cycle of 5ths using many harmonic substitutions using the diminished substitution theory, rhythm cycles and polyrhythms as a basis for his highly fueled Jazz based music stemming from John Coltrane's developments.

That belief either requires a second payment for sin at the judgment, the adoption of a form of universal reconciliation, or abandonment of the penal substitution theory of the atonement.

Atonement - Wesley's atonement is a hybrid of the penal substitution theory and the governmental theory of Hugo Grotius, a lawyer and one of the Remonstrants.

In 1913 Allen Strickler of Buffalo had written articles which were found by William Smallwood of Toronto and some others to contain a "substitution" theory of Christ's death.