They are different from statistical models (for example linear regression) whose aim is to empirically estimate the relationships between variables.

The SSNIP test can be applied by estimating empirically the critical elasticity of demand.

While important, it is almost impossible to estimate empirically the scale of such effects due to the subjective nature of the value of time.

To empirically estimate the expected value of a random variable, one repeatedly measures observations of the variable and computes the arithmetic mean of the results.

This allows the means and variances to be 'filtered away', coupled with an empirically estimated CDF, it becomes a more realistic model in predicting VaR.

Another way to empirically estimate SEU tolerance is to use a chamber shielded for radiation, with a known radiation source, such as Cesium-137.

In an ideal world, we could empirically estimate the parameters of each model using training sets of pairwise alignments culled from real RNAs, coding regions, and other conserved noncoding regions, using pairwise alignments that were all about the same percent identity.

The authors concluded that "Northern Hemisphere mean annual temperatures for three of the past eight years are warmer than any other year since (at least) AD1400", and estimated empirically that greenhouse gases had become the dominant climate forcing during the 20th century.

Generally the effect of wealth on retirement is difficult to estimate empirically since observing greater wealth at older ages may be the result of increased saving over the working life in anticipation of earlier retirement.